Annotated Bibliographies for Module 3
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed., pp. 77-91). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
In this excerpt, Driscoll discusses how information is processed during the sensory memory and working memory stages of learning. For learning to occur, individuals must first sense the presence of the information. While the sensory register can register large amounts of information, this information decays very quickly (p. 78). Learners have a limited capacity for attending to competing information and also are able to perform some tasks automatically with little need to attend to the task.
According to Driscoll, “selective attention refers to the learner’s ability to select and process certain information while simultaneously ignoring other information” (p. 79). A learner’s ability to attend to information is influenced by several factors. These include the meaning the information has to the learner, the similarity between competing tasks, text complexity, and the ability of the learner to control their attention. Techniques for cueing a learner’s attention include utilizing visual and auditory signals to gain attention, in addition to highlighting text, altering one’s voice, and introducing novelty (p. 80)
Driscoll defines automaticity as occurring “when tasks are overlearned or sources of information become habitual, to the extent that their attention requirements are minimal…” (p. 80). The last factor influencing sensory memory is pattern recognition, which refers “to the process whereby environmental stimuli are recognized as exemplars of concepts and principles already in memory” (p. 82). Popular models of pattern recognition include the prototype model and the feature analysis model. In addition to these models, context and prior learning also influence pattern recognition.
For learning to occur, information must move from the sensory register to working memory. Learners must also access long-term memory at this stage, in order to make sense of the new information. Working memory is reported to hold 7+/- pieces of information at a time, but capacity can be increased by chunking information into larger, meaningful bits of information. Unrehearsed information is believed to be lost form working memory in 15 to 30 seconds (p. 87).
In order to move information from short-term to long-term memory rehearsal and encoding of the information is necessary. In order to maintain information in long-term memory, encoding is needed in addition to repetition. Encoding occurs when new information is related to information already present in long-term memory. The use of outlines, concept trees, hierarchies, mnemonics and imagery are suggested strategies for assisting learners with organizing and encoding new information.
Baddeley, A. (1992, January 31). Working memory. Science, 255(5044), pp. 556-559. Retrieved from http://links.jstor.org/sici?
sici=00368075%2819920131%293%3A255%3A5044%3C553AWM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B
Baddeley proposes tripartite system for working memory which consists of an attentional controller and the central executive, in addition to the articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketch pad (p. 556). Two major theories of working memory are prevalent in current research. The psychometric approach focuses on the relationship between working memory tasks and individual differences in cognitive skills. Alternatively, the dual-task and neuropsychological approach focuses on the role of the articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketch.
Research in the psychometric approach indicates that while there is a correlation between working memory capacity and reasoning skill, these two areas are not interchangeable. In essence, reasoning skill was more dependent on prior knowledge and working memory was more reliant on processing speed. Studies in the effects of disruptions to verbal activity versus visual spatial activity, indicate that the disruptions to visual spatial activity are far more impactful to the individual (p. 558).
Studies regarding the phonological loop have asserted four major findings. First, the acoustic similarity effect indicates that recall improves when items are dissimilar in sound. Second, the irrelevant speech effect indicates that recall of visual information is negatively impacted when presented in connection with irrelevant spoken material. Next, the word length effect suggests that memory span for words is inversely related to the duration of the spoken word. Finally, articulatory suppression prohibits learners from rehearsing which in term negates the effects of word length.
According to Baddeley, working memory is a function of memory, attention, and perception (p. 559). Models of the phonological loop are likely to overlap with models of speech perception and speech production. Whereas the visuospatial sketch pad is closely related to visual perception and action processes. The interdependency of these links in working memory are a foundation for future research in the study of working memory.
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed., pp. 77-91). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
In this excerpt, Driscoll discusses how information is processed during the sensory memory and working memory stages of learning. For learning to occur, individuals must first sense the presence of the information. While the sensory register can register large amounts of information, this information decays very quickly (p. 78). Learners have a limited capacity for attending to competing information and also are able to perform some tasks automatically with little need to attend to the task.
According to Driscoll, “selective attention refers to the learner’s ability to select and process certain information while simultaneously ignoring other information” (p. 79). A learner’s ability to attend to information is influenced by several factors. These include the meaning the information has to the learner, the similarity between competing tasks, text complexity, and the ability of the learner to control their attention. Techniques for cueing a learner’s attention include utilizing visual and auditory signals to gain attention, in addition to highlighting text, altering one’s voice, and introducing novelty (p. 80)
Driscoll defines automaticity as occurring “when tasks are overlearned or sources of information become habitual, to the extent that their attention requirements are minimal…” (p. 80). The last factor influencing sensory memory is pattern recognition, which refers “to the process whereby environmental stimuli are recognized as exemplars of concepts and principles already in memory” (p. 82). Popular models of pattern recognition include the prototype model and the feature analysis model. In addition to these models, context and prior learning also influence pattern recognition.
For learning to occur, information must move from the sensory register to working memory. Learners must also access long-term memory at this stage, in order to make sense of the new information. Working memory is reported to hold 7+/- pieces of information at a time, but capacity can be increased by chunking information into larger, meaningful bits of information. Unrehearsed information is believed to be lost form working memory in 15 to 30 seconds (p. 87).
In order to move information from short-term to long-term memory rehearsal and encoding of the information is necessary. In order to maintain information in long-term memory, encoding is needed in addition to repetition. Encoding occurs when new information is related to information already present in long-term memory. The use of outlines, concept trees, hierarchies, mnemonics and imagery are suggested strategies for assisting learners with organizing and encoding new information.
Baddeley, A. (1992, January 31). Working memory. Science, 255(5044), pp. 556-559. Retrieved from http://links.jstor.org/sici?
sici=00368075%2819920131%293%3A255%3A5044%3C553AWM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B
Baddeley proposes tripartite system for working memory which consists of an attentional controller and the central executive, in addition to the articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketch pad (p. 556). Two major theories of working memory are prevalent in current research. The psychometric approach focuses on the relationship between working memory tasks and individual differences in cognitive skills. Alternatively, the dual-task and neuropsychological approach focuses on the role of the articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketch.
Research in the psychometric approach indicates that while there is a correlation between working memory capacity and reasoning skill, these two areas are not interchangeable. In essence, reasoning skill was more dependent on prior knowledge and working memory was more reliant on processing speed. Studies in the effects of disruptions to verbal activity versus visual spatial activity, indicate that the disruptions to visual spatial activity are far more impactful to the individual (p. 558).
Studies regarding the phonological loop have asserted four major findings. First, the acoustic similarity effect indicates that recall improves when items are dissimilar in sound. Second, the irrelevant speech effect indicates that recall of visual information is negatively impacted when presented in connection with irrelevant spoken material. Next, the word length effect suggests that memory span for words is inversely related to the duration of the spoken word. Finally, articulatory suppression prohibits learners from rehearsing which in term negates the effects of word length.
According to Baddeley, working memory is a function of memory, attention, and perception (p. 559). Models of the phonological loop are likely to overlap with models of speech perception and speech production. Whereas the visuospatial sketch pad is closely related to visual perception and action processes. The interdependency of these links in working memory are a foundation for future research in the study of working memory.