Annotated Bibliographies for Module 2
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed., pp. 71-77). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Driscoll begins by discussing that although behaviorist theories had dominated the field of psychology, they struggled to explain more intricate processes such as reading. He goes on to point out that early theorists, such as Gestalt psychologists, had previously addressed cognitive processes and that this area of study itself was not new. According to Driscoll, a shift in American psychology occurred with the introduction of computers after World War II which provided a context for thinking about memory, perception, and learning (p. 74).
Driscoll presents a model of information processing that describes how humans process information like a computer. The processing includes moving information from sensory memory to working memory, and finally to long-term memory, with the information undergoing some type of transformation at each level. Sensory memory is the initial stage of information processing that allows humans to process information received from the senses, but only stores this information for brief moments of time (p. 74). Information received into sensory memory is quickly passed on to working memory for further processing. Working memory allows humans to actively manipulate information received from the senses but can only retain limited amounts of information for a limited amount of time (p. 75). In order for new information to be retained, it must be moved to long-term memory. Information successfully encoded into long-term memory is considered to be permanent, and long-term memory is believed to be able to have an unlimited capacity (p. 75).
Driscoll concludes by explaining that in order “…for instruction to be meaningful and relevant, it must build upon learners’ prior knowledge and help learners to construct cognitive connections between what they already know and what they are being asked to learn” (p. 77).
Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical overview. In Human cognition (pp. 1-27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
The first chapter of Guenther’s book provides a timeline of how western culture came to view our world as natural, rather than supernatural. The transition to this thinking began with scientists like Copernicus and Galileo who introduced and reinforced the theories that the sun was the center of the universe and not the earth. In the 1800’s the theories regarding the physical universe being natural transcended to theories about human biology and evolution. The theories of evolution offered by scientists such as Darwin and Wallace served as the foundation for theories that evolution was grounded in the natural world (p. 4). Theories regarding the natural world advanced to include discussions of the mind, with theorists like Descartes asserting a dualism theory. This theory asserted that while the body was subject to natural processes, the mind was a separate entity and remained in the supernatural realm. In opposition to the dualist theories, theories of materialism proposed that there is no basis for separating physical processes and mental processes, but the brain is simply an organ that manages mental processes (p. 6).
Guenther goes on to introduce cognitive science, which includes the areas of cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Sigmund Freud proposed that behavior previously accredited to demons, in actuality had a biological and natural basis. The 20th century brought advancements in science which furthered the advancements in cognitive science. Cultural anthropologists, physical anthropologists, linguists and developmental psychologists contributed to theories that explained the biological bases for human behavior.
Information processing theories assert four claims. These claims assert that information is transformed as it moves through states, higher mental processes can be explained by elementary operations, human cognition has a limited capacity for storing and transmitting information, and finally that there are similarities between human thinking and digital computers (p. 15). Guenther goes on to explain why the analogies between human thinking and computer processing are problematic, specifically in regards to differences in memory capacity and how memory functions in humans and computers.
Finally, Guenther introduces the neural net model, which emphasizes the biological nature of the model and includes input units, output units and hidden units (p. 18). This model asserts the importance of the strength of the connections between neurons and its implication for human learning. In opposition to the computer analogies that include central processing units and programs to control how the brain functions, the neural net model relies on the connections between units (p. 21). Most importantly the neural net model highlights the underlying components of information processing, including the theory that multiple factors can be said to influence human thought and behavior, including our abilities to reflect.
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed., pp. 71-77). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Driscoll begins by discussing that although behaviorist theories had dominated the field of psychology, they struggled to explain more intricate processes such as reading. He goes on to point out that early theorists, such as Gestalt psychologists, had previously addressed cognitive processes and that this area of study itself was not new. According to Driscoll, a shift in American psychology occurred with the introduction of computers after World War II which provided a context for thinking about memory, perception, and learning (p. 74).
Driscoll presents a model of information processing that describes how humans process information like a computer. The processing includes moving information from sensory memory to working memory, and finally to long-term memory, with the information undergoing some type of transformation at each level. Sensory memory is the initial stage of information processing that allows humans to process information received from the senses, but only stores this information for brief moments of time (p. 74). Information received into sensory memory is quickly passed on to working memory for further processing. Working memory allows humans to actively manipulate information received from the senses but can only retain limited amounts of information for a limited amount of time (p. 75). In order for new information to be retained, it must be moved to long-term memory. Information successfully encoded into long-term memory is considered to be permanent, and long-term memory is believed to be able to have an unlimited capacity (p. 75).
Driscoll concludes by explaining that in order “…for instruction to be meaningful and relevant, it must build upon learners’ prior knowledge and help learners to construct cognitive connections between what they already know and what they are being asked to learn” (p. 77).
Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical overview. In Human cognition (pp. 1-27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
The first chapter of Guenther’s book provides a timeline of how western culture came to view our world as natural, rather than supernatural. The transition to this thinking began with scientists like Copernicus and Galileo who introduced and reinforced the theories that the sun was the center of the universe and not the earth. In the 1800’s the theories regarding the physical universe being natural transcended to theories about human biology and evolution. The theories of evolution offered by scientists such as Darwin and Wallace served as the foundation for theories that evolution was grounded in the natural world (p. 4). Theories regarding the natural world advanced to include discussions of the mind, with theorists like Descartes asserting a dualism theory. This theory asserted that while the body was subject to natural processes, the mind was a separate entity and remained in the supernatural realm. In opposition to the dualist theories, theories of materialism proposed that there is no basis for separating physical processes and mental processes, but the brain is simply an organ that manages mental processes (p. 6).
Guenther goes on to introduce cognitive science, which includes the areas of cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Sigmund Freud proposed that behavior previously accredited to demons, in actuality had a biological and natural basis. The 20th century brought advancements in science which furthered the advancements in cognitive science. Cultural anthropologists, physical anthropologists, linguists and developmental psychologists contributed to theories that explained the biological bases for human behavior.
Information processing theories assert four claims. These claims assert that information is transformed as it moves through states, higher mental processes can be explained by elementary operations, human cognition has a limited capacity for storing and transmitting information, and finally that there are similarities between human thinking and digital computers (p. 15). Guenther goes on to explain why the analogies between human thinking and computer processing are problematic, specifically in regards to differences in memory capacity and how memory functions in humans and computers.
Finally, Guenther introduces the neural net model, which emphasizes the biological nature of the model and includes input units, output units and hidden units (p. 18). This model asserts the importance of the strength of the connections between neurons and its implication for human learning. In opposition to the computer analogies that include central processing units and programs to control how the brain functions, the neural net model relies on the connections between units (p. 21). Most importantly the neural net model highlights the underlying components of information processing, including the theory that multiple factors can be said to influence human thought and behavior, including our abilities to reflect.