Annotated Bibliographies for Module 12
Lowe, R. K. & Schnotx, W. (2014). Animation principles in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 513-546). New York: Cambridge.
Advances in technology have resulted in the use of animation becoming increasingly commonplace in educational settings and materials. While much research has occurred in regards to how to effectively utilize the spoken and written word in education, little research has been completed in regards to the effectiveness of animations in educational materials. Animations do a great job of grabbing the attention of the learner when compared to static images, and as such have been assumed to be beneficial to the learner. Recent research has indicated that this might now always be the case, and that for some educational purposes static images may provide more benefits to the learner. But with proper planning and consideration for cognitive learning theory, animations do offer vast opportunities for providing instruction.
Five general principles should be considered when designing animations for educational purposes. First, the learning objective of the animation should be well-defined. Second, proper consideration should be given to the need to demonstrate spatial vs. temporal information. Third, learning will be enhanced when the perceptual attributes of the animation are matched to the cognitive processing demands. Fourth, processing at both the perceptual and cognitive level should be supported. And finally, learners will benefit from animations that facilitate learner interaction based on the purpose of the animation and the learner’s prior knowledge.
When considering the use of animations, the designer should reflect on the learning task and when and why the animations might be beneficial for the learning objective(s) of the task. In this regard, more research needs to be done to address the limitations of learning from animations. Characteristics of animations may interfere with the learner identifying the salient information for the learning tasks and/or may misdirect the learner’s attention. The cognitive demands required to process the animation may also diminish the cognitive resources that the learner needs to effectively pass information from working memory to long-term memory. Cuing can be effectively used to direct the attention of the learner to the critical features of the animation.
The Animation Processing Model (APM) consists of five phases in the process of creating a mental model. The five phases include: localized perceptual exploration, regional structural formation, global characterization, functional differentiation, and mental model consolidation. APM supports the use of a composition approach to the designing of animations which reduces the cognitive load placed on the learner and supports the construction of appropriate mental models. This approach is based on breaking down the objective of the animation into individual building blocks, as opposed to presenting the entire function as a single unit. It is also recommended that learners be trained in strategies for interacting with and learning from animations.
Plass, J. L. & Schwartz, R. N. (2014). Multimedia learning with simulations and microworlds. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 729-761). New York: Cambridge.
Advancements in technology have introduced simulations and microworlds to education providing students to explore and engage in more active level of learning. Multimedia simulations are meant to “depict specific phenomena, processes, or systems,” while microworlds allow for “expanded opportunities for creation and exploration” (Plass & Schwartz, 2014, p. 730). Both fall within the framework of model-based inquiry.
Studies on the use of simulations have found that they offer advantages to learners in the areas of content knowledge, conceptual knowledge, process skills, motivation and attitude. To be effective, simulations must be designed to include proper scaffolding, supplement traditional instruction, include clearly defined objectives and educators must also be trained to effectively utilize the simulations in the classroom. Iconic representations and visually based scaffolds have been found to be more effective when looking at comprehension and transfer. Allowing learners to easily move between multiple representations of the information to be learned further supports comprehension.
As with other forms of multimedia, cueing is also important for supporting processing of the new information. The level of learner control that is most beneficial for learning can be dependent on the complexity of the information, as well as the level of knowledge of the learner. Feedback, particularly graphical and explanatory feedback, further benefits learners. Designing learning environments to transition the learner from simple to more complex environments further supports learners’ acquisition of new knowledge. Providing students with opportunities to provide a self-explanation can also further increase knowledge acquisition.
Less research has been done to investigate the effectiveness of microworlds. As with other designs, microworlds must contain clearly defined objectives and provide specific guidance to the learner to be effective. Research has not yet concluded that gamelike features in microworlds support cognitive learning. Microworlds provide an opportunity for learning to occur within a social environment which may support social-behavioral development. More research is needed to study the impact of microworlds on learning and cognitive development before they can be determined to be an effective learning platform.
In simulation and microworld environments, learners can generate questions and hypotheses, plan an inquiry to test their hypotheses, put their plan into action, and then analyze the results. Positive benefits for self-efficacy, social skills, and motivation are also suggested because of engagement in simulations and microworlds. The impact of collaboration and competition within these learning environments is worthy of further investigation. In its current form, cognitive load theory struggles to address some of the benefits that learners experience within simulations and microworlds. Due to these and other limitations to current research, further investigation into the usefulness of simulations and microworlds for educational purposes is needed.
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Lowe, R. K. & Schnotx, W. (2014). Animation principles in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 513-546). New York: Cambridge.
Advances in technology have resulted in the use of animation becoming increasingly commonplace in educational settings and materials. While much research has occurred in regards to how to effectively utilize the spoken and written word in education, little research has been completed in regards to the effectiveness of animations in educational materials. Animations do a great job of grabbing the attention of the learner when compared to static images, and as such have been assumed to be beneficial to the learner. Recent research has indicated that this might now always be the case, and that for some educational purposes static images may provide more benefits to the learner. But with proper planning and consideration for cognitive learning theory, animations do offer vast opportunities for providing instruction.
Five general principles should be considered when designing animations for educational purposes. First, the learning objective of the animation should be well-defined. Second, proper consideration should be given to the need to demonstrate spatial vs. temporal information. Third, learning will be enhanced when the perceptual attributes of the animation are matched to the cognitive processing demands. Fourth, processing at both the perceptual and cognitive level should be supported. And finally, learners will benefit from animations that facilitate learner interaction based on the purpose of the animation and the learner’s prior knowledge.
When considering the use of animations, the designer should reflect on the learning task and when and why the animations might be beneficial for the learning objective(s) of the task. In this regard, more research needs to be done to address the limitations of learning from animations. Characteristics of animations may interfere with the learner identifying the salient information for the learning tasks and/or may misdirect the learner’s attention. The cognitive demands required to process the animation may also diminish the cognitive resources that the learner needs to effectively pass information from working memory to long-term memory. Cuing can be effectively used to direct the attention of the learner to the critical features of the animation.
The Animation Processing Model (APM) consists of five phases in the process of creating a mental model. The five phases include: localized perceptual exploration, regional structural formation, global characterization, functional differentiation, and mental model consolidation. APM supports the use of a composition approach to the designing of animations which reduces the cognitive load placed on the learner and supports the construction of appropriate mental models. This approach is based on breaking down the objective of the animation into individual building blocks, as opposed to presenting the entire function as a single unit. It is also recommended that learners be trained in strategies for interacting with and learning from animations.
Plass, J. L. & Schwartz, R. N. (2014). Multimedia learning with simulations and microworlds. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 729-761). New York: Cambridge.
Advancements in technology have introduced simulations and microworlds to education providing students to explore and engage in more active level of learning. Multimedia simulations are meant to “depict specific phenomena, processes, or systems,” while microworlds allow for “expanded opportunities for creation and exploration” (Plass & Schwartz, 2014, p. 730). Both fall within the framework of model-based inquiry.
Studies on the use of simulations have found that they offer advantages to learners in the areas of content knowledge, conceptual knowledge, process skills, motivation and attitude. To be effective, simulations must be designed to include proper scaffolding, supplement traditional instruction, include clearly defined objectives and educators must also be trained to effectively utilize the simulations in the classroom. Iconic representations and visually based scaffolds have been found to be more effective when looking at comprehension and transfer. Allowing learners to easily move between multiple representations of the information to be learned further supports comprehension.
As with other forms of multimedia, cueing is also important for supporting processing of the new information. The level of learner control that is most beneficial for learning can be dependent on the complexity of the information, as well as the level of knowledge of the learner. Feedback, particularly graphical and explanatory feedback, further benefits learners. Designing learning environments to transition the learner from simple to more complex environments further supports learners’ acquisition of new knowledge. Providing students with opportunities to provide a self-explanation can also further increase knowledge acquisition.
Less research has been done to investigate the effectiveness of microworlds. As with other designs, microworlds must contain clearly defined objectives and provide specific guidance to the learner to be effective. Research has not yet concluded that gamelike features in microworlds support cognitive learning. Microworlds provide an opportunity for learning to occur within a social environment which may support social-behavioral development. More research is needed to study the impact of microworlds on learning and cognitive development before they can be determined to be an effective learning platform.
In simulation and microworld environments, learners can generate questions and hypotheses, plan an inquiry to test their hypotheses, put their plan into action, and then analyze the results. Positive benefits for self-efficacy, social skills, and motivation are also suggested because of engagement in simulations and microworlds. The impact of collaboration and competition within these learning environments is worthy of further investigation. In its current form, cognitive load theory struggles to address some of the benefits that learners experience within simulations and microworlds. Due to these and other limitations to current research, further investigation into the usefulness of simulations and microworlds for educational purposes is needed.
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